Positive psychology makes a distinction between subjective wellbeing, social wellbeing and psychological wellbeing. The literature of positive psychology makes use of different terminologies to name positive affective states and some of them are not yet clarified. For instance, there is a confusion of terms – what Seligman (2002, p.115) prefers to call ‘gratification’, Csikszentmihalyi (2002) calls ‘enjoyment’. These confusions suggest that psychological understanding of affective states is still a work in progress (Kristjánsson, 2010). On the other hand, the complexity of terminology goes to show that pleasure, happiness and wellbeing lies in a spectrum of psycho-social states with a varying degree of valence.
Pleasure
Positive psychology suggests that pleasure (largely understood as hedonia) is not negative in itself. It has a limitation insofar as exaggerations are concerned. The exaggeration in intensity could lead to euphoria, and the exaggeration in frequency and duration could lead to habituation. Subsequently, the state of euphoria could trigger a downshift in a state of ‘dysphoria’ (Awad & Voruganti, 2005). Neurobiology attributes dysphoria to dopamine depletion; and dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is active in pleasure and reward-seeking behaviour (Bressan & Crippa, 2005). Now, to overcome the discomfort, and even the depression associated with this dysphoria, the individual might return to the stimuli. The repetition and compulsion of this process establishes the cycle of addiction. Similarly, habituation in an organism is the decreased psychological and behavioural response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. To handle the frustration caused by habituation the individual might want to have a larger dose of the stimuli and thus creating tolerance. This is connected to the processes of homeostasis and allostasis. Dysphoria and habituation could be understood in terms of homeostasis and allostasis. The downward shift in dysphoria could be a reaction of the brain to maintain balance following an upward swing. Habituation, on the other hand, may be a mechanism of the organism to stabilise the reward function by not reacting to normal level of stimulus, and in the absence of stimulus by showing a high variation in order to remain stable (Sterling & Eyer, 1988).
There is some neurobiological evidence for the discussion above. The processes associated with pleasure and addiction seem to support the character-strengths-hypothesis of addiction, at least provisionally (see Esch, & Stefano, 2004). Pleasurable experiences in organisms may trigger several types of neurotransmitters in the brain, like dopamine and endorphins. Let us focus on endorphins (endogenous morphines). They are so called, because they are morphine like substances produced within the body by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, during strenuous activity, excitement, and orgasm. The endorphins act as natural pain relievers and provide a sense of wellbeing. Pleasurable activities are useful for wellbeing and are capable of improving concentration and cognitive function such as memory (Esch, Fricchione, & Stefano, 2003). This may not necessarily constitute addiction. However, the loss of flexibility and extreme control of behaviour in addiction may depend on the type of agent used to induce pleasure, its amount, duration and frequency (Esch, & Stefano, 2004, p.238). It may be beneficial to make a distinction between pleasure and, what Esch and Stefano (2004, p.245) call, ‘enjoyment’:
Pleasure can be seen as the good feeling that comes from satisfying homeostatic needs such as hunger, sex and bodily comfort, whereas enjoyment may refer to the good feelings people experience when they break through the limits of homeostasis – when they do something that stretches them beyond their current existence. Hence, enjoyment rather than pleasure may lead to personal growth and development, yet providing good feelings or long-term happiness.
Gratification
The possible confusion of terminology notwithstanding, we can also consider the third category of inner state: gratification. This includes social and psychological wellbeing, which is generated through a set of character strengths. It is interesting to note that endorphin-activity is also possible during a state of relaxation, as in a float-tank. Davidson and colleagues (2003) claim that exercises of mindfulness induce relaxation and sense of wellbeing, and the left-sided anterior activation of the brain is similar to those associated with positive affect. However, what distinguishes euphoric effects of pleasure and a state of enjoyment, as Csikszentmihalyi (1999/2002) understands it, and gratification, is the degree of effort that is involved in attaining the pleasurable state. To borrow an example from Csikszentmihalyi, the difference is seen in consuming a drug and playing football. The latter experience could lead to enjoyment due to the physical effort involved in it. For instance, sitting in contemplative practice may involve more effort and discipline than having recourse to a euphoric state and even playing football. Thus, contemplative practice could contribute to something higher than enjoyment, that is, gratification.
Seligman (2002) wonders why human beings readily choose pleasures (that lead to euphoria and eventually to habituation) over those means that lead to gratification. He tentatively suggests six possible factors that could make the choice of gratification less likely: “The gratifications are constraining; entail the possibility of failing; require skill, effort, and discipline; produce change; can arouse anxiety; and have opportunity costs” (p.290). These factors are also attested to by the work of Csikszentmihalyi (2002). He suggests that the path to wellbeing, even if it is more demanding, is of higher value. Therefore, strengths based interventions to facilitate recovery, even if they may be more demanding, could be significant in the journey towards higher forms of wellbeing that includes psychological and social wellbeing – a state that positive psychology identifies with eudaimonia. It might be useful to recall here what was said in the section that reviewed addiction theories, more specifically the theory of rational addiction. People who lack future orientation might calculate the possibility of increased, future gratification merely based on their experience of enjoyment in the present. And since the future gratification seems increasingly delayed, they attempt to increase their consumption of the present enjoyment, thus building tolerance, and eventually addiction.
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