DOWNLOAD MY CLASSNOTES IN PDF:PP 10 Religion & Positive psychology
Positive psychology and Religion/Spirituality in dialogue
Religion and spirituality are in the domain of “human experience beyond the material” (Miller, 2010, p.35). That is why, Wulff (1997, p.645) proposed the inclusion of the ‘Principle of the Transcendent’ in the psychology of religion. Without due consideration of the transcendent, the psychological study of religion, or any study of religion for that matter, that uses positivist methods, runs the risk of materialism and reductionism (See Gualtieri 1989). For instance, studying religion from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience could provide useful insights, but it cannot sufficiently explain religious sentiments and behaviour. However, this is a matter of debate. The crux of the debate is how far the academic approach to religion should respect the ‘insider perspective’ (Sharma, 1997). Should a scholar of religion necessarily prefer explaining religious processes as an outsider, tounderstanding religious phenomena as an insider – that is as a theologian (See Tite, 2004)? What would be the priority of psychology of religion itself? Without getting into the complexity of this debate any further, we suggest that positive psychology movement could offer not only a possible meaningful dialogue between the insider and outsider perspectives, but also to study religious phenomena as an insider, provided the methods of psychology are respected, and also to explain religious sentiments and behaviour as an outsider.
For instance, virtues and character strengths which have been hitherto largely the subject matter of theology and philosophy have become now a central framework for positive psychology. One of the criteria applied in the original selection of the candidate strengths to the catalogue of the VIA was their ubiquity across cultures and religious traditions (Park and Peterson 2007, p.296; Peterson and Seligman, 2004, pp.14-27; Peterson 2006, pp.29-48). More precisely, this was achieved by examining the philosophical and religious traditions of China (Confucianism and Taoism), South Asia (Buddhism and Hinduism), and the West and Ancient near East (Ancient Greek philosophy, Judaism, Christianity and Islam), looking for the insights each provide for the pleasant, good, and engaged life (Dahlsgaard et al. 2005; Peterson and Seligman 2004, pp. 33-52; Snyder and Lopez 2007, pp.23-50). Even if this is still a work in progress, this attempt creates a lot of possibility for psychology of religion. However, it should be acknowledged that greater clarity is still needed in the operationalisation of the measurement of these character strengths.
Recently, Belzen (2010) has suggested that psychology be culturally sensitive, particularly when studying religious phenomena. To this end, he calls for a dialogue between cultural psychology and psychology of religion. This dialogue is already taking place within positive psychology. Haidt (2003) had invited scholars within positive psychology to look “to other cultures and other historical eras for ideas and perspectives on virtue and the good life” (p.275). He supposed that world religions hold a great promise of a “highly developed and articulated visions of virtues, practices, and feelings, some of which may even be useful in a modern secular society.” In a similar vein, Maltby and Hill (2008) see religion as a fertile ground for positive psychologists to study systematically the “common denominators” of virtues and character strengths. There have been other similar efforts in facilitating a dialogue between positive psychology and various religious traditions, either in support, or in critique, of positive psychology and its constructs (Chu and Diener 2009; Delle Fave and Bassi 2009; Sundararajan 2005; Joseph et al. 2006; Watts et al. 2006; Vitz, 2005; Zagano and Gillespie, 2006).
Positive psychology and psychology of religion: Samples of convergence
There is a growing body of empirical studies that has identified significant links between religion and spirituality and the themes of positive psychology, as seen in the special issue of the journal Mental Health, Religion and Culture (Joseph, Linley, & Maltby, 2006), and the review by Emmons (2006). Some of the psychologists of religion who began their work even before the formation of the positive psychology movement have now preferred to situate themselves within positive psychology (Pargament & Mahoney, 2009). Pargament has been studying the relationship between wellbeing and religious coping (Pargament, 1997). Several parallels can be discerned between coping and positive psychology (Mahoney, Krumrei, & Pargament, 2008): Religious coping examines how people seek significance in times of stress; “that significance may be material (e.g., a house), physical (e.g., health), social (e.g., intimate relationships), psychological (e.g., meaning), or spiritual (e.g., closeness with God)” (Pargament, 1997, p.216). The same is true of other psychologists like Emmons (1999; 2006). Besides these traditional themes within psychology of religion, there are new themes that are emerging within this division of psychology thanks to the influence of positive psychology. Researchers at the Psychology and Religion Research Programme in theUniversity ofCambridge see positive psychology as a possibility to pursue the dialogue between religious traditions and human qualities like forgiveness, gratitude, and hope (Watts, Dutton, & Gulliford, 2006).
The key insight of positive psychology is that happiness and wellbeing are clearly associated with goal, purpose and meaning-making (Emmons, 1999). One reason religious and spiritual traditions have been persistent in human history is that they provide meaning (Park & McNamara, 2006). In this concern, positive psychology shares the same podium with religion. The theme of meaning closely related to hope, optimism and future orientation. Not surprisingly, to a great degree, depression and suicidal behaviour, and to a lesser degree, alcoholic abuse, are correlated to hopelessness (Schotte & Clum, 1982). This hopelessness is understood as the absence of purpose in life, and more precisely, the lack of self-efficacy and problem-solving abilities (Heppner & Lee, 2005). Similarly, optimism is seen to be highly correlated with ‘social interest’ (Barlow, Tobin, & Schmidt, 2009). Social interest (originally from Adler) is the disposition to spontaneously build a sense of connectedness with humankind. This, in turn, is said to have a positive impact on mental wellbeing. There is sufficient empirical evidence to show that people who are altruistic, sociable and display empathy are consistently happier than others. On the other hand, people suffering from depression are generally self-absorbed, distrustful and focus defensively on their own needs (Seligman, 2002).
Research evidence on the correlation between forgiveness and mental health and wellbeing is also abundant (McCullogh & Witvliet, 2005). On the one hand, the experience of forgiving others is associated with mental wellbeing (Reed & Enright, 2006) and physical health (Thoresen, Harris, & Luskin, 2000). On the other hand, the experience of being forgiven by God was related to fewer depressive and anxious symptoms (Exline, Yali, & Lobel, 1999). Interventions to facilitate forgiveness also show significant decrease in grief, anger, and anxiety after treatment (Coyle & Enright, 1997).
Research works on mindfulness also bring together spirituality and wellbeing. Mindfulness, which is the age-old process of cultivating awareness in Buddhist traditions, is seen in positive psychology as a means to facilitate novelty, flow and optimal experiences. Its relation to spirituality is duly acknowledged (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Mindfulness is increasingly used in clinical contexts. Although “empirical literature supporting its efficacy is small,” there is a growing support for the claim that “mindfulness-based intervention can be rigorously operationalized, conceptualized, and empirically evaluated” in the context of health and wellbeing (Baer, 2003, p.140; see also Kabat-Zinn, 2003).