Conflicts: A Social Psychological Perspective
with special focus on the role of Narratives
Rev Dr Sahaya G. Selvam
Tangaza University College, Nairobi
Note: These notes are meant for class discussion
Social Psychology is a branch of psychology (as well as of sociology) that focuses on the cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling) and behavioural dimensions of human beings in their interaction with each other – in groups and societies.
Activity 1: Ask in pairs: “Who are you?” x 10 times
One of the foci of Social Psychology is how individuals draw their identity from their affiliation to groups (see Henri Tajfel and John Turner). There is a basic need in human beings to belong – this need is met by individuals being part of groups that they find themselves in or choose to be in: Ethnic groups, religions, clubs, etc. This sense of social identity is not bad at all in itself. In fact, from the perspective of evolutionary psychology it ensures our individual security and promotes even altruism – that individuals learn to reach out to others.
However, Social Identity acquires negative implication as soon as group dynamics develops in terms of in-group and out-group perspectives. In other words, intergroup conflict starts with a process of comparison between individuals in one group (the ingroup) to those of another group (the outgroup): “we are better than they” (Gaertner, et al., 2000). In the comparison process, individuals and groups tend to:
- favour the ingroup over the outgroup;
- exaggerate and overgeneralize the differences between the ingroup and the outgroup (to enhance group distinctiveness);
- minimize the perception of differences between ingroup members;
- remember more detailed and positive information about the ingroup, and more negative information about the outgroup.
In the case of religion the exaggerated positive information about the ingroup leads to fanaticism: “No salvation our religion”. In ethnic affiliations it leads to ethnicism. This situation can result in prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination, and competition. The ingroups not only exaggerate their positive qualities (“We are the only way to salvation”), but also begin to express negative views on the outgroup (“You are all damned to hell”). The ground is now set for open conflicts (“If I kill an infidel, I go to heaven.”)
These negative exaggerations are perpetuated through “narratives”.
Activity 2: Brainstorm – What are narratives?
What are narratives? In a narrow sense, ‘narrative’ refers to stories – fiction and nonfiction. In a broader philosophical sense, it refers to the manner in which an event is narrative or an ideology is propagated. In the latter sense, narrative includes a whole lot of symbols, icons (objects and persons), myths, histories, etc. Narratives may not be based on facts. They may be mythologised facts.
Narratives are also related to discourse: how people use language to perpetuate a certain worldview and identity. For instance, Americans refer to their country as “this great nation”, “the land of dreams”, etc.
Narratives have some special properties. They evoke emotions. They guard or threaten people’s identities. People find it easy to identify themselves with narratives because they play on the ingroup-outgroup identifies at the affective level. At this stage rationality is suppressed.
In a sense, taboos are maintained by means of narratives. Hence, narratives are useful in creating cohesion and in maintaining the expected behaviour within a group. However, when these narratives are directed towards others they become lethal.
Consider the following from Indian history: Fact – On 10 May 1857, the Indian soldiers in the British army rebelled against their English commanders and killed several of them. In the large-scale ‘war’ that developed more than 100,000 Indians were killed.
The Indian Narrative – “The first war for Independence”;
The British Narrative – “The Sepoy mutiny”
Another example: When I was new in Kenya I went for a cultural village experience to Eastern Kenya. People told me (rather jokingly): “If you ever marry a Kenyan, don’t marry a Kikuyu. It would be like two men trying to live together.”
Activity 3: Can you identify similar narratives in Kenya? Can you identify some narratives that are prevalent in management contexts?
Towards Conflict Resolution: Gordon Allport (1954) suggested that the first step in reducing or preventing conflict is the promotion of contact between the ingroup and outgroup. This will reduce prejudices. He also suggested four optimal conditions for contact: equal status between the groups in the situation; common goals; intergroup cooperation; and the support of authorities, law, or customs.
In the context of our discussion on narratives, people need to come together and listen to each others’ narratives.
Conflicts can be resolved by creating collective narratives. Any cohesive group is brought together by means of common narratives. Nationalism is a product of collective narratives. A corporate organisation which has few persistent conflicts among its members and between its departments is one that has collective narratives in the form of a logo, slogan, or a common discourse.